For the autumn, the Guimet is inviting visitors to experience the splendour of Ming-dynasty (1368-1644) gold jewellery and precious objects for the imperial court. The bulk of the exhibition is a loan of vases and ornaments from the Qujiang Museum of Fine Arts in Xian. Since ancient times, gold has been considered in China a symbol of wealth and social status, alongside bronze, jade and silk. Unlike silver, which became the main monetary value and was used for trade under the Ming, gold was usually reserved for decoration or the making of luxury objects, such as ceremonial tableware and jewellery.
Given the value of the metal from which these objects are made, objects from the Ming dynasty are relatively rare survivors, as many of them were subsequently melted down to allow the manufacture of new pieces. Also, as most of the gold items produced during this period were intended for personal use – and not as tomb goods – hardly any gold pieces from the Ming dynasty survive in the Palace Museum Collections. The ones that have survived are linked to the imperial family and were probably interred as personal possessions, such as those found in the tomb of the Wanli emperor (r 1573-1620).
Restoration of Chinese and Confucian traditions
When the Ming dynasty overthrew the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271-1368), they restored Chinese traditions and Confucianism to the empire. Between 1405 and 1433, Admiral Zheng He’s (1371-1433) fleet undertook six official voyages on behalf of the emperor, crossing Southeast Asia and rounding the Indian peninsula to reach the eastern coast of Africa in the monumental ocean-going Chinese junks that then dominated the high seas. All of this was at an extraordinary financial cost. The Western Ocean (xi yang) spanned the now South China Sea and extended westward through the Strait of Malacca and across the Indian Ocean to the east coast of Africa. As the emperor’s emissary, Zheng He forged the initial links with foreign rulers asking them to give their allegiance to the Yongle emperor (r 1402-24). One of the most remarkable tributes during this period was the gift of a giraffe sent by the ruler of Bengal to the Yongle emperor in 1414 (now in the Philadelphia Museum of Art).
The beginning of the 16th century marked a decisive turning point: in search of new commercial routes to reach Asia, European navigators (Vasco da Gama in 1498, Christopher Columbus between 1492 and 1504, and Fernand de Magellan between 1519 and 1522) opened maritime routes that connected Europe to Asia and the Americas, helping to enforce Ming China’s role as a globally trading country. This allowed for the expansion and broadening of trade goods to include gold, silver, spices, precious stones, and even exotic animals to be imported into the empire. The cities of the south also grew richer, leading to the rise of a new wealthy merchant class – and with this – the desire for material comfort and luxury objects to show their rising status. In this context of urban growth, there was a high demand for such luxury products as embroidered silks, goldwork, and jewellery.
One of the first measures taken by the Ming emperors upon their accession to power was to restore the customs and clothing of the Tang (618-907) and Song (960-1279) dynasties, considered the paragons of Chinese tradition. This decision reflects the concern of the new rulers to establish distinctive clothing, designed to counter that worn by the Mongols. Ornaments and jewellery made of gold, jade, or silver, such as hair ornaments, belt buckles, plaques, pendants, earrings, rings and bracelets, were all designed to be essential accessories for the clothing worn by the elite. Much like the garments themselves, these accessories served as an indicator of rank and social status.
As such, these objects were subject to detailed regulations – sumptuary laws – that aimed to define what was appropriate to wear, depending on the social position occupied by each person within the hierarchy. Certain fabrics, colours, and designs were reserved for court costume and identified the wearer as being from the imperial household. This regulation was intended to restrict the use of precious materials while guaranteeing the exclusivity of certain motifs to members of the imperial family and the highest representatives of the administration. The dragon, pheasant, or phoenix motifs were, in principle, also reserved for the exclusive use of the emperor and some of his closest relatives. Ming princes, their wives, and children represented an imperial presence in the regions, and their costumes echoed those of the emperor.
Production of gold objects
At the turn of the 15th century, and even more so in the 16th century (the period to which most of the pieces in the exhibition are attributed), the production of gold objects and ornaments developed widely. Some of the most beautiful pieces were enhanced with precious stones: rubies, spinels, blue, yellow or green sapphires, or any other rare material, such as white or pale green jade, freshwater pearls, and kingfisher feathers. The imperial court controlled the manufacture of gold jewellery and ornaments made for its members. Craftsmen worked in precious metals in the department called the Jewellery Service (Yinzuoju), in charge of making jewellery and other silver and gold objects. The distribution of these ornaments by the emperor to members of the family and court for marriages or new office, was a guarantee of wealth and social success.
Gold ornaments were also considered capable of revealing the radiance of a female face, the whiteness of which had long been praised by poets. Regardless of their ostentatious function, they were also part of the livery of aristocratic women and were closely associated with the ideal of feminine beauty. Against this backdrop of economic prosperity and the weakening of imperial power, the manufacture of gold objects experienced unprecedented growth, as wealthy elites still desired to imitate the fashions and practices of the aristocracy. However, these objects were not of the quality produced by the imperial workshop.
Importance of motifs in Ming dynasty gold jewellery
The choice of motifs was also of great importance in Ming dynasty gold jewellery, as in addition to showing the rank or wealth of the wearer, they often conveyed a more general talismanic message, such as luck, wealth, happiness, health, or longevity to the person who wears them. Flowers and birds are traditionally associated with the seasons and carry auspicious meaning: the prunus evokes beauty and winter; the peony wealth and spring; the lotus purity and summer; the chrysanthemum integrity and autumn; and a basket of flowers is associated with fertility.
The lantern promises abundant harvests and is associated with the New Year celebrations. Animals are also associated with auspicious signs: the bat is a symbol of happiness; the crab of success; and the butterfly with longevity. Certain elements were also borrowed from religious iconography, such as the staff of Buddhist pilgrims or the attributes of the eight Taoist Immortals, including the calabash or double gourd, evocative of abundance and prosperous descendants. Plants constitute an inexhaustible repertoire of motifs, while flowers, naturally associated with the seasons, allude to certain qualities or virtues advocated by Confucian thought. The prunus, whose flowers are the first to bloom at the end of winter, evoke resilience. The peony, which flowers in spring, is synonymous with wealth and success. The lotus, an aquatic summer flower associated with Buddhism, evokes purity, while the chrysanthemum, whose flowers bloom in autumn, is considered a symbol of endurance.
The vast majority of designs depicted on this jewellery carry an auspicious meaning. This is particularly the case when considering the ruyi sceptre, holding the meaning ‘according to your desires’. Its end forms a trilobed volute, the shape of which is inspired by the shiny ganoderma species: a mushroom to which the Chinese pharmacopoeia links fortifying virtues, and according to Taoist practices, the quest for a long and healthy life. The ‘longevity’ character itself (shou) is also a particularly popular motif found on many pieces of jewellery from this period.
Religious iconography in the Ming dynasty
There are themes directly borrowed from religious iconography, such as the figures of Buddhist deities, which were particularly appreciated as ornament for the central hairpin (tiaoxin) that aristocratic women wore above their forehead, on the front of their hair-bun cover. Under the Confucian precept of filial piety, married women (as well as adult men) were prohibited from cutting their hair. It was to be pulled up and worn in a bun. The hairstyle of elite women was decorated with combs and pins of various shapes, the number and patterns of which denoted the rank of the wearer. These are arranged in a symmetrical composition, so that with the exception of the central ornament placed above the forehead, the hairpins always came in pairs.
Taoist themes, such as the Eight Immortals and their attributes, for example, the calabash gourd and the basket of flowers, are also among the favourite motifs for female accessories.
Earrings are among the most common types of feminine jewellery seen in Ming-dynasty gold jewellery, and seemingly there were three models, all intended for pierced ears. The ear studs feature a small ornament placed in front of the lobe, with a thick ‘S’-shaped post at the back which acts as a counterweight. The rings, which can also be enhanced with a small ornament positioned on the front of the lobe, are sometimes decorated with a pendant or a simple engraved motif. Drop earrings are a more imposing and heavier accessory that is suspended under the earlobe using an ‘S’ rod which rests behind the ear on the mastoid bone or on the neck to support the earring.
A final section in the exhibition is devoted to exploring the main techniques used in the manufacture of gold objects at the time: casting, hammering, embossing, chasing, setting, filigree and granulation, explained through new multimedia content developed with the support of L’École des Arts Joailliers.
The exhibition is organised by the Guimet Museum and the Qujiang Museum of Fine Arts (Xian, Shaanxi, China) as part of the Franco-Chinese year of cultural tourism and the celebration of the 60th anniversary of diplomatic relations between France and China.
Until 13 January, 2025, Ming dynasty gold jewellery, Musée Guimet, Paris, guimet.fr. Catalogue available
