An exhibition currently showing at the Rietberg Museum in Switzerland aims to paint a different picture of the country by presenting a wholly new perspective on Mongolia’s 2,000-year history, partly thanks to cutting-edge archaeological research. Some 200 works are included in the exhibition, many of which have not been displayed outside of Mongolia before. The country’s major urban centres are at the heart of the exhibition., which takes visitors on a journey from the contemporary metropolis of Ulaanbaatar to the archaeological excavations of the country’s earliest settled cities.
Mongolia’s capitals have always been centres of trade and exchange, playing a key role in the cultural and economic development of Europe and Asia from earliest times, through the golden age of the Silk Road, to the commercial hub it has become today. The exhibition explores four major urban settlements founded between the 2nd and 14th centuries to explore early processes of urbanisation and changing cultures, seeking to find out how people from diverse backgrounds flourished and lived together.
Research into Mongolia’s earliest civilisations first began about 100 years ago, and in 2001 a major project was funded by the Alliance of Religions and Conservation (ARC) with the assistance of local Buddhist monks, began an initiative to and revitalise the cultural and religious sites in Mongolia. Preservation of Mongolia’s ancient cities and broader archaeological sites (such as Xiongnu- or Uyghur-era ruins) also became the focus of other initiatives, including projects by the Smithsonian Institution and the American Center for Mongolian Studies, often working in collaboration with the Institute of Archaeology of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences and UNESCO.
These projects emphasised the fact that the steppes in northern China have always been home to a range of constantly changing nomadic peoples. From the 3rd century BC onwards, the steppes were dominated by the nomadic tribes of the Xiongnu, Xianbei, Turks, and Khitan (Qidan), respectively. These tribes were eventually conquered by Genghis Khan (r 1206-27) in 1207, who was himself the son of a chieftain from the Mongol Borjigin clan, a tribal confederation from the northeastern area of Mongolia, near the Onon and Balj Rivers.
In 1271, Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis, became ruler of the empire and adopted the new Chinese dynastic name of Yuan. For millennia, the steppe nomads traded with people to the west and those who lived on China’s central plains, establishing the Steppe Silk Road. This route crossed the Eurasian steppes, beginning in Central Asia and Eastern Europe in the west, reaching Mongolia and Siberia in the north and the central plains in the south.
Commerce was at the heart of these global partnerships, and Mongolia played an important role in this trade and cultural exchanges. As the northern Asian steppes were an early cultural hub, they became a bridge between Europe and East Asia. The nomadic ways of life have persisted for centuries, despite rapid modernisation and the movement of people towards cities, and continue to be central to the national identity today.
The name Mongolia is ambiguous, as one must distinguish between the sovereign nation of Mongolia, founded in 1924, and Inner Mongolia, which presently is part of the People’s Republic of China. This ambiguity has also existed in the past. Kublai Khan, Genghis Khan’s grandson, founded the mighty Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) and established a vast empire that stretched through Europe and Asia, thus facilitating travel and trade. At this time, trade became more efficient and less dangerous through the northern and southern steppe routes and along the postal relay roads, which further enhanced cultural interaction between East and West.
Before the dawn of the Mongol age, the Chinese imperial Tang dynasty (618-907) ruled the area by establishing a presence on the Mongolian Plateau, which enabled the early encounters between East and West to grow and international trade to begin to flourish. However, Tang control over the region was not complete – the Tang’s allies, the Uyghurs, had established their own empire over parts of Mongolia around the middle of the 8th century.
Towards the end of the Tang dynasty, another nomadic group, the Khitan (Qidan) from Inner Mongolia grew in power to eventually establish the Liao dynasty (916-1125) to rule over parts of modern Mongolia, Northeast China, and the Russian Far East. The Liao inherited what was left of Tang material culture, in addition, it allowed them to control most of the Mongolian steppe, allowing them to keep contact with Central Asia and maintain the international trade routes. Another dynasty, the Jin (1115-1234), swept in but they were eventually conquered by Genghis Khan and his successors, who defeated the Jin to create the Mongol Empire.
To examine the complex history and culture of this ancient region, the exhibition begins in the present with the megacity of Ulaanbaatar. Visitors are immersed in floor-to-ceiling projections showing vast landscapes and bustling city life. It also highlights the contradictions of the modern city – tensions between urban and rural life, as well as between city and nomadic lifestyles. Now, half of the population lives in the bustling megacity of Ulaanbaatar, but many people remain deeply committed to their traditional nomadic ways of life. Young people in particular seek to find their roots and footing in the present-day world, following the destructive period under communism and liberalisation following 1990.
Going back in time, the second section of the exhibition explores the 13th century and the foundation of the Mongol Empire (1206-1368), established by Genghis Khan (circa 1162-1227) and upheld by his grandson Kublai Khan (1215-1294). The town selected to represent this period in Mongolia’s history is Karakorum in the Orkhon Valley. This cosmopolitan this capital of the Mongol Empire was home to people from across Eurasia. Kublai Khan’s older brother, Mongke, the Great Khan (r 1251-59) ruled Mongolia from the city and used it as a base to conquer areas of Northern China. Inhabitants of the capital were allowed to retain their languages and freely practise their religions – many were traders with luxury objects for the local rulers.
Kublai Khan was the founder of the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368), one of the most dynamic and culturally rich periods in Chinese history. Material culture flourished during this pivotal and vibrant period in Chinese culture and history. China, then the largest nation on earth, however, it was only one of five parts of what has been called the Mongol World Empire, the largest empire the world had ever seen, covering at its greatest extent an area of almost 33,000,000 square kilometres, 22% of the earth’s total land area. Including the Empire of the Great Khan (China and north into Siberia), the Golden Horde or Kipchak Khanate, the White Horde, the Ilkhanate, and the Chagatai Khanate, it stretched south to Cambodia, west to the Danube River, north into Siberia and Russia, and east to the Sea of Japan, with its capital at Dadu (Beijing).
An area to the north of modern-day Ulaanbaatar is the final location selected by the exhibition. This part of the exhibition looks at the culture of the Xiongnu, the ancient ancestors of the Mongols of today, a tribal confederation that founded the first empire established by nomadic people living in the grasslands of Central Asia – the eastern Eurasian Steppe. Formed around the same time as the Han dynasty (202 BC-AD 220), linking the eastern and western worlds by controlling the main part of the Silk Road, it occupied a vast territory extending north and south from Yellow River to Lake Baikal, and east and west from Manchuria to the Altai Mountains.
Remnants of the tombs and funeral complexes of this civilisation (from the 4th century BC to the 2nd century AD) can still be seen today – a total of 11 funeral complexes of the Xiongnu elite have been found in Mongolia and Russia, with seven of these complex sites in the territory of Mongolia. The Xiongnu royalty were often buried with specific ritual objects and the excavated tombs were found to contain remains of animals that appear to have been sacrificed. Spectacular discoveries in the lavishly decorated Xiongnu tombs testify to early trade relations spanning the whole of Eurasia, offering insights into the Xiongnu’s imaginative and creative realm, as objects carry the depiction of mythical creatures such as dragons, unicorns, and winged animals.
The first archaeological study of the Noyon Uul Xiongnu sites north of Ulaanbaatar was initiated about 100 years ago, however, little information was available until Chinese written sources began to be examined in 1924, when the first official archaeological study of the Xiongnu was begun at Noyon Uul. Since 2000, research has been conducted more actively.
As testimony to the culture’s international reach, several artefacts found in the tombs came from western and central Asian regions, showing the range of cultural exchange within the Xiongnu Empire. For example, archaeologists suggest that embroideries and knitting featuring images of humans – uncovered from tomb 6 of Sujigtiin Am at Noyon Uul – were brought to the Xiongnu across Scythia and Central Asia. An embossed silver object comes from Graeco-Bactria. Other items from the west include a glass bowl (Gol Mod II, satellite burial 30, Tomb 1), a silver decorative object with Grecian mythic gods (Noyon Uul, Tomb 20), and a decorative golden pin with turquoise inlays (Gol Mod I, Tomb 20), similar ones that have been found in Afghanistan.
Returning to the present, the first part of the exhibition features several works by artists working in Ulaanbaatar’s lively arts scene. These pieces offer a unique perspective on modern Mongolian life through the works of Erdenebayar Monkhor, Baatarzorig Batjargal, Lkhagvadorj Enkhbat, and Nomin Zezegmaa. The question of Mongolian identity remains one that artists are still exploring. Throughout the 1990s, artists engaged in experimentation with new media and non-representational styles, which had been discouraged during the socialist era, to explore their own creative voices in a new political system with freedom of expression.
Today, these artists are looking at the world they live in, but at the same time, are also seeking for answers in the many past worlds of Mongolia. In 2008, a gigantic equestrian statue of Genghis Khan was erected to the east of Ulaanbaatar to honour the 800th anniversary of the Mongol Empire. Other artists explore the nomadic side of Mongolian life, the significant Buddhist culture of the region, or horses, hunting, and the culture of the Liao dynasty. All these subjects are in full view, bringing together elements that create a new Mongolian culture and identity.
Until 22 February 2026, Rietberg Museum, Zurich, rietberg.ch
