For more than five thousand years, silk was an integral part of life in China, composing an important role in the history of Chinese civilisation and global cultural interaction. Silk not only helped connect diverse ethnic groups and vast regions across China but also bridged China and the rest of the world. Silk was a highly sought-after luxury good, as precious as gold, and was also a form of currency that facilitated vibrant exchanges between China and many parts of the world along the trade routes, including trade with Persia and beyond, to the end of the Silk Road in Venice. It also has a secondary role in its contribution to art: it has been widely used as backing and support for East Asian paintings and calligraphic works, and frames for religious paintings such as Buddhist thangkas.
Despite being a luxury product, silk weaving was popular at all levels of society, and by the 16th century, production had expanded to make it one of China’s major industries. This exhibition not only looks at the history of silk but also at the diversity of silk techniques and its functions. In China, silk was used as a currency. By the 16th century, China had a high demand for silver (a 1570s Ming reform mandated taxes to be paid in silver), so silk, along with spices and porcelain, was used to exchange goods, resulting in China entering the world economy. By the 18th century, silk had become a fabric desired throughout much of the Western world.
The large-scale production of fine silks resulted in part from a combination of the availability of raw materials and the organisation of working processes. Man-hours were, overall, cheap and available, so the many stages of production were not necessarily the hindrance that they might have been in other societies. The principal stages were the cultivation of mulberry trees and bushes; rearing the silkworms; retrieving silk from their cocoons; and spinning and weaving.
Silk has also played an important role in dress and social standing for centuries. The style of dress established in the Ming dynasty formed the basis of early modern Chinese clothing that can still be seen in theatrical and operatic costumes, with short jackets, full pleated skirts, and the dragon robe. Under the Yuan dynasty, the Mongol-style dress of the central plains was particularly disliked by the scholar classes in the south. This resulted in a further change of style under the Ming, which saw a revival of interest in Han period styles that evolved to promote Chinese dress based on Tang- and Song-dynasty clothing.
In the early part of the dynasty, the capital was situated at Nanjing (in the south), but even after its establishment in Beijing in the 15th century, the south remained the centre of innovation in dress and almost everything related to fashion. This had much to do with the strength of the silk industry in Nanjing, Suzhou, and Hangzhou, as well as the Jiangnan area’s leadership in cultural affairs.
This history of silk is divided into four sections in the exhibition. The first part explores the late Neolithic period to the Northern and Song dynasties (circa 3,000 BC to AD 589). Here, the origins of silk are traced to the late Neolithic period when inhabitants of the basins of the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers processed silk cocoons and wove on primitive looms. The consort of the legendary Yellow Emperor, Leizu, was known as the first teacher of sericulture.
Silk production techniques advanced during the Shang and Zhou dynasties, resulting in increasing varieties of silk and more complex weaves. Silk weaves became more complex with the use of treadle-operated looms in the Warring States period. The development from chain stitch to split stitch gave rise to embroideries with even richer textures. Geometric and animal designs gained great popularity during the Warring States and Han periods.
In the Qin and Han dynasties, a maturing bureaucracy fostered economic, social, and cultural developments. Buddhism was introduced to China in the late Han through traders and missionaries along the Silk Roads. These exchanges across various ethnic groups and regions during the Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern dynasties enriched the art of textile manufacture. Han dynasty state-run weaving workshops producing court textiles and garments thrived in areas such as Shaanxi and Shandong.
The story then moves to a focus on the Sui and Tang dynasties, which is seen through the objects presented in the second section of the exhibition. Chinese society flourished during the Sui and Tang dynasties with the unification of the waterways into a single system creating the Grand Canal during the Sui dynasty, which improved economic connections between north and south. An important innovation was introduced in the Sui dynasty at the request of Emperor Wendi (r 581-604), when the Chinese artisan He Chou (active 6th–7th century) of the imperial workshop reproduced and improved upon Persian brocade from West Asia.
The Tang dynasty is regarded as a golden age of Chinese civilisation, characterised by an immense cultural flourishing, economic prosperity, and territorial expansion. It was a time when China’s engagements with Eurasia and Southeast Asia increased with goods exported via both land and maritime trade routes. Interactions between China and the world were seen in the rise of cosmopolitan centres along the Silk Roads, such as Chang’an, Luoyang, Dunhuang, and Turfan, where cultures, tastes, and religions converged.
Another innovation came when Dou Shilun (593-671), the Duke of Lingyang, created textiles in the ‘Duke of Lingyang style’, adding a further refinement that profoundly influenced Tang textiles. The style incorporated elements from West and Central Asia, including the Sasanian dynasty and Sogdiana. This new style is characterised by auspicious animals in roundels and floral decorations. By the mid-to-late Tang dynasty, images, such as floral sprays, birds, and butterflies had also gained currency, reflecting an interest in nature and naturalistic subject matter. It was at this time that the art of silk reached new heights when weft-faced compound twill, a polychrome brocade, along with lightweight gauzes gained great popularity. Twill damask and silk tabby were widely used as currency for the exchange of goods.
The third part of the exhibition focuses on silk production during the Song and Yuan dynasties. The period from the 10th to the 13th century saw remarkable cultural and economic prosperity, as well as technological advancements in the creation of silk. Frequent contacts among the Song, Liao, Jin, Western Xia, Uyghur, and Dali brought mutual influences to the development of design. As maritime commerce flourished, the port cities Quanzhou and Guangzhou emerged as hubs for international trade.
In the Song dynasty, silk production became a vital economic activity. Lightweight silks like twill damask and complex gauze were predominant, and decorations inspired by nature gained popularity. Weaving techniques became increasingly sophisticated. Drawing on the textile knowledge of the late Tang dynasty, weavers from the Liao and Jin dynasties created jacquards, including brocade, twill damask, and complex gauze. Silk tapestry, satin stitch embroidery combined with goldwork embroidery, as well as dyeing, were widely used. Images of landscapes and animals favoured by ethnic groups in the north could be found in textiles.
In 1271, Kublai Khan (r 1260-94) established the Yuan dynasty and unified a vast region under the Mongol Empire, which helped further foster exchanges among peoples across Eurasia. With the opening of new cross-continental routes, the Yuan dynasty was able to have closer ties with West Asia and Europe, which, in turn, stimulated the export of silk and ceramics.
This international trade in the Yuan dynasty saw the fusion of textile designs from the Song dynasty and West Asia, which led to the manufacture of opulent silks, including those with gold threads or gold-printed decorations. During this period, the invention of a special type of figured lampas (a textile with two warps and two wefts) enabled weavers to incorporate intricate designs that required this complex weaving technique to create sumptuous designs.
The fourth section looks at the achievements of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). The Ming period is considered a golden age for the decorative arts. It was a time when furniture, chairs, and tables were regularly draped in luxurious fabrics. Significant advances had been made in the arts, culture, trade, and technology, allowing the decorative arts to flourish. In relation to silk, the early Ming period saw a return to Han Chinese sartorial norms and a continuation of certain Yuan-dynasty dress elements. The revised edition of the Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty (1509) regulated attire according to rites and social hierarchy. The religious beliefs of the imperial household also influenced textile decorations during the Ming – the Jiajing Emperor (r 1522-1566) was a devout Daoist, whilst the Wanli Emperor (r 1573-1620) was an ardent follower of Buddhism, so textiles during these reigns were often adorned with religious images.
As the textile industry flourished, weaving methods and embroidery techniques also advanced. The Jiangnan region emerged as a major centre of textile production with government-run manufactories established in Nanjing, Suzhou, and Hangzhou. By the late Ming, these private workshops in the south gradually became a major force in the textile industry and flourished. As an important commodity along the southwest Silk Road in China, silk served as a vehicle for cultural exchanges between the Tibetan region and the Ming court. The imperial court presented large volumes of high-quality silks as gifts to Tibetan monks and elites. In exchange, the Yongle Emperor and the Ming court were influenced by Tibetan Buddhism, using it as a diplomatic tool to strengthen their authority over Tibet and surrounding regions.
It was also a time when the Maritime Silk Road was prospering. The Yongle Emperor ordered Admiral Zheng He (1371-1433), to lead seven major expeditions between 1405 and 1431 across Asian, Arab, and African waters, taking with him fine silks, ceramics, and other valuable objects as diplomatic gifts. In 1567, direct trade relations with European countries, including Portugal, were established, when the Ming government revoked the jiajin (sea ban), which had severely restricted private maritime foreign trade for over two centuries, creating a surge in international demand for silk.
The Qing dynasty (1644-1911) is the subject of the final section of the exhibition. By this time, technical advances and the decorative splendour of textiles produced were built on the achievements of earlier dynasties. The silk industry flourished during the mid-Qing, when there was social stability and an economic boom. The Jiangnan region remained the most important silk and cotton production centre, and there were Imperial Silk Manufactories in Nanjing, Suzhou, and Hangzhou. These three manufactories were the largest court-sponsored textile producers in Chinese history. During the Qianlong period (1736-1795), their production averaged 13,000 bolts of silk fabric annually, while the non-court textile industry was experiencing high demand.
The taste in Qing clothing culture communicated the distinctive Manchu identity of the Qing rulers. In the mid-Qing, imperial wardrobe management reached its peak, with the colour, decoration, and cut of formal attire all meticulously regulated.
In 18th-century Europe, Chinese silks were highly fashionable. China was influencing global fashion with its large-scale silk export trade and the chinoiserie craze in Europe. European silks and European-style textiles also gained popularity at the Qing court. By the 19th century, the Qing government was forced to open its ports to foreign powers, which greatly impacted China’s textile industry when the influx of foreign technologies and goods from Europe and the US flooded into the country. The adverse effects of internal revolts weakened the court and government.
The modern national textile industry only emerged in the latter half of the 19th century with the introduction and development of new technologies, which ushered in a new era for Chinese textile and fashion. A trend that continues today, with China manufacturing the most silk and dominating global production, consumption, and export.
Until 6 April 2025, Hong Kong Palace Museum, hkpm.org.hk
